DRAFT RESEARCH PROPOSAL

TOPIC

“Biological diversity must be treated more seriously as a global resource, to be indexed,

used, and above all, preserved”. (Wilson, 1999)

Accelerating rates of biodiversity loss and the signing of international agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and Agenda 21, have called upon the world’s biodiversity to be inventoried and monitored. Baseline data are fundamental units of basic inventory information that are crucial for biodiversity conservation management. They are essential for informing on how biodiversity changes, and are important in distinguishing anthropogenic and natural change. They can be used to assess priorities for conservation, land use, environmental impact assessments, and informing policy-makers and the general public on the state of biodiversity.

Endemic species are excellent for identifying target areas of high conservation priority because, if unique species are lost, they can never be replaced. They are often vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances and other forms of environmental changes. Therefore, I plan to provide baseline data of endemic palm distribution in Indonesia, particularly in the Tondano watershed of North Sulawesi. In doing so, I will be using a geographic information system (GIS) to generate a map depicting the distribution patterns of individual species. This map is a key tool for making informed judgements about the conservation status of individual species and for identifying areas of special biodiversity importance where conservation resources should be focussed. Such areas include ‘hotspot’ of high species richness as well as places where vulnerable species, or species assemblages of particular interest, occur.

LARGER CONTEXT

Tropical forests, which cover only 7 percent of the Earth’s land area, are home to more than 50 percent of the world’s plant species (Meyrs, 1988). It is all the more regrettable, then, that tropical forests are being degraded and destroyed faster than any other ecological zone. Due to the annual clearance of approximately 17 million hectares, tropical forests may face extinction within the next 30 years (World Resource Institute, 1989). Urbanization and the conversion of forests into agricultural plantations are rapidly transforming continuous areas of natural ecosystems into isolated islands of natural habitat. Habitat loss and fragmentation on a variety of spatial scales have been widely acknowledged as primary causes of the decline of many species worldwide. Habitat fragmentation generally leads to smaller and more isolated populations. These populations are more vulnerable to local extinction due to stochastic events, and are more susceptible to the negative effects of inbreeding depression (Gilphin and Soule, 1986). For example, research has shown that in Sumatra the clearance of 10,000 ha of tropical rainforest for logging and mining could cause the extirpation of endemic fauna including monkeys, hornbills, siamangs, gibbons, tigers, and elephants, as well as the local extinction of invertebrates and plants (Whitten, 1984).

Endemic species are thought to be at greater risk of extinction because, unlike more widespread species, these taxa are not replaceable from elsewhere once their habitat is destroyed. Due to geographic isolation, endemic species have evolved in many of Indonesia’s islands. Because they have been isolated for long periods from one another, many Indonesian islands have evolved endemic species. Of all of Indonesia’s islands, Sulawesi has one of the highest rates of endemism (Caldecott, 1994). The Tondano watershed, located on the Northern portion of the North Sulawesi Pennisula, is home to many endemic species, including some palm species such as Pigafetta filiaris, Pinanga celebica, Areca oxycarpa, and Licuala celebica. However, it is not known how many endemic palms exist and how they are distributed within the Tondano watershed. Thus, more studies need to be conducted in order to provide the data on the abundance and distribution of these endemic palm species in this area.

As a very important area for the prosperity of North Sulawesi, the Tondano watershed is experiencing significant stress due to land use changes resulting from forestry, agriculture, urbanization, and industrial activities. As a result of these uses, the extent of natural habitat has diminished and the level of biodiversity has been eroded. Currently, only 5.7 percent of the total watershed (501 km²) is natural forest (BRLKT, 1989).

It has been found that many palms cannot survive destruction of their primary forest habitat, and a few of the species, all of which are known from a single collection or a description, are now probably extinct. Many other species have had their geographical range curtailed. Palms likely to be already extinct are: Calopshata - a genus of rattans restricted to Perak with two species -, Iguanura arakudensis, Pinanga acaulis, and Ptychoraphis longiflora (Whitmore, 1973).

Considering the fact that habitat loss and fragmentation due to forest conversion cause the erosion of biodiversity, more research needs to be conducted in order to assess the diversity of endemic palms in the Tondano watershed so that conservation priorities can be developed. As well as an ethical value, endemic species have considerable economic and ecological value. People value certain endemic species because they provide them with such things as food, chemicals, medicines, and fuel (Raven and McNeely, 1998). For example, the trunk of Pigafetta filiaris, a majestic palm of Sulawesi, is used as supports for the traditional houses in Minahasa and Tana Toraja, and is also used in the same area to make water conduits (Whitten, 1987). In ecological terms, biodiversity is the foundation of the ecosystem services upon which society depends. It should be noted that any palms play key roles in forest ecosystem functioning through leaf and fruit productivity, animal relationships, and providing special components in the forest structure. Rattans, for example, are a crucial food source for the orangutans during the drought. If there had not been adequate rattan available for consumption, it is likely that some of the orangutans would have not survived (Meyfarth, 1999). Another tall palm, Pigafetta filiaris, occurs on landslips, very steep-sided ridgetops, disturbed forests (Dransfield, 1976), is play a key role in the forest ecosystem by decreasing the rates of soil erosion and even landslides. It is difficult to find substitutes for the services provided by individual species in ecological systems. Therefore, as biodiversity is lost, so too are these services.

The over-riding questions for this research are:

1. How many endemic palms exist and how they are distributed within the Tondano watershed?

2. The impacts of socioeconomic activities on the palm existence in the Tondano watershed?

The objectives of this research related to the main research questions are:

1. to measure species diversity of endemic palms in the Tondano watershed;

2. to estimate endemic palm distribution in the Tondano watershed;

3. to identify areas of high endemic palm species diversity;

4. to identify areas suitable for palm re-introduction.

METHODS

1. Study Areas

The field data were gathered in the Tondano Watershed in the province of North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The watershed, which covers 501 km², comprises Tondano Lake in the volcanic highlands and the drainage of the Tondano River through the upland plains west of Mount Klabat, Manado City, and Manado Bay, which is also bounded by the Bunaken Marine Park. The watershed occurs at latitude between 1^oand 2^o North, and its topography is mountainous. The annual temperature is on average 32 °C (89 °F) by day and 24 °C (75 °F) by night. Annual rainfall varies between 1500 mm and 2800 mm, the majority of rain falling between December and March. August and September are generally the driest months of the year.

2. Data Collection

A variety of data collection techniques will be used in this study to obtain spatial and aspatial data on endemic palm species. The following subsection describes the employed data collection methods .2.1. Collection of Primary Data from the Field Work

In situ endemic palm data will be collected from 11 sites with distinctive habitat types, namely lowland and lowland montane forests, croplands, plantations and grassland. Habitat type varies with the elevation gradient. For the purpose of this study, forests were not systematically categorized into either disturbed and undisturbed, or primary and secondary. Plot samplings will be established randomly in all forest types. The term ‘Plantations’ refers to areas comprised of coconut, cloves, nutmegs, mixed coconut and clove, mixed coconut and cassava, and mixed clove and cassava. The term ‘croplands’ refers to cultivated areas of vegetables and flowers. Finally, the term ‘grasslands’ refers to a habitat dominantly occupied by pioneer grasses (Imperata cylindrica), and shrubs.

This study will use transects, which were run across the given sites, with a 100 m elevation interval ranging from 300m to 1200 m. Five sampling plots were located in each transect. At each site, a 10 x 40 m grid rectangular plot was established systematically at 60 m intervals beginning at a randomly selected point. In each quadrant, the presence or absence of each endemic palm will be recorded. There are 197 sampling plots established in this study. In certain mountains where the slope is too steep and the relief is high, only fewer plots will be able to be established in each transect. Instead, the transects will run along the mountain ridges, starting from one side of the mountain and ending on the other.

A general description of the palm flora of Sulawesi is given by Mogea (1995). In his descriptions, each endemic palm species is identified, and the number of individuals of each species is counted to give a value for total species richness. In this study, only adults of each endemic palm species which are more than 3 m high, will be enumerated in each plot. In addition, for more accurate identification, some palm specimens will be collected during the field work. Photographs of each palm will be also taken for identification purposes and for addition to the research records.

A Global Positioning System (GPS) device will be used to georeference sampling sites. This device uses a system of satellites that transmit signals to special receivers on the ground for precise determination of X-Y coordinate positions. In addition, topography maps will be used as a reference when the GPS will not able to receive any signals as a result of undesirable conditions, such as when the forests is too dense or the weather is overcast/cloudy.

2.2. Collection of Primary Data from the Community

Informal, semi-structured interviews will conducted during the field work. For the purpose of this study, 45 local people including village leaders, farmers, craftsmen and furniture makers, will be interviewed to obtain data on their perceptions of the endemic palms that exist in the forests near their villages. In this process, the researcher will obtain data regarding the value of these palms, the socioeconomic activities in the villages, and a history of palm exploitation. These qualitative data will play a key role in identifying the local use and knowledge of the endemic palms.

2.3. Collection of Secondary Data from Reports and Other Documents

Secondary data in this study includes the findings of previous related studies, the collection of research data (consultant and government reports), and other relevant documents from the Indonesian forestry department.

3. Data Sets

To generate a map of endemic palm distribution, the following data sets will be required:

- A digital basemap of the Tondano watershed. This map will be designed to display the location of district boundaries, selected rivers, lake, and cities.

- A digital land cover map of the Tondano watershed, derived from 1999 SPOT data. A vegetation cover map provides the foundation for an assessment of the distribution of endemic palm species across the Tondano Watershed based on their habitat preferences.

- Point data indicating the presence or absence of endemic palms in each of the geographic units.

- Descriptive data regarding the characteristics of species and habitats, which will be gathered both from field observations and the literature review.

4. Data Analysis

The objectives in this study will be met through the analysis of the diversity of the endemic palms, and through the development of a distribution map for endemic palms in the Tondano watershed.

¨ Species Richness

Species richness will be simply gauged by counting the number of species recorded in a defined sampling unit.

¨ Species diversity index (H)

For each plot, species diversity will be measured using the Shannon-Wiener index (Magurran, 1988). In this index, the square of the overall number of individuals observed is divided by the sum of the squares of the number of individuals observed of each species. The formula for calculating the Shannon diversity index is:

H’ = - ∑p_i ln p_i

Where p_i, the proportional abundance of the ith species = (n_i / N)

The value of the Shannon diversity index is typically falls between 1.5 and 3.5, and only rarely surpasses 4.5 (Magurran, 1988). A further t test will be run to test for significant differences between samples.

¨ Evenness (E)

Evenness is measured to assess the extent to which species are equally abundant (Magurran, 1988). The maximum diversity (H_max) that can possibly occur is found in situations where all species are equally abundant, in other words where H’ = H_max = ln S. The ratio of observed diversity to maximum diversity can therefore be taken as a measure of evenness (E), and the formula for calculating the evenness is

E = H’/ H_max = H’/ln S

In this equation, E is the constraint between 0 and 1.0, with 1.0 representing a situation in which all species are equally abundant. High evenness, which occurs when species are equal or virtually equal in abundance, is conventionally equated with high diversity.

¨ Linear Regression

Associations between species richness and altitude will tested using linear regression, to analyze the effect of altitude on species richness.

¨ ARC/View GIS

A Geographic Information System (GIS) will be used to produce a composite map displaying endemic palm distributions. The GIS provides valuable information for endemic species management. Distribution patterns for each species will be examined using ARC/View in conjunction with layers consisting of the most current maps for land cover map, political boundaries and divisions, major rivers and streams, lake, and town.

ETHICAL ISSUES

Since my research partially involved human participants, it inevitably involved some ethical issues. I will be using all the information that was recorded from interviews with local people. However, I will not disclose an individual’s identity when quoting his or her opinions to protect their privacy. In doing so, the subjects will be remained anonymous or nameless in my major paper.

PROPOSED OUTPUT

The purpose of this study to provide a comprehensive report on the present distribution of endemic palms in the Tondano watershed in map and recommendation forms. It is hoped that study will be used as a reference for local governments in developing integrated watershed management strategies and conservation area priorities.

REFERENCE

Balai Rehabilitasi Lahan dan Konservasi Tanah (BRLKT) Wilayah X Sulutteng. (1989). Rencana Teknik Lapangan Rehabilitasi Lahan dan Konservasi Tanah DAS Tondano. Buku I/Buku Utama. Sulawesi Utara, Indonesia.

Caldecott J. O. (1994). Terrestrial Biodiversity Management in Indonesia: Study and Recommendations. Environmental Management Development in Indonesia Project (EMDI). Jakarta, Indonesia.

Dransfield, J. (1976). A Note on the Habitat of Pigafetta filiaris in North Celebes. Principes 20:48.

Gilphin, M. E. and Soulé, M. E. (1986). Minimum Viable Populations: Processes of Species Extinction. In Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Soulé, M. E. (Ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinaeur Associates.

Heywood, V.H. and R.T. Watson. (1995). Global Biodiversity Assessment. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press.

Magurran, A. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurements. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Meyfarth. E. (1999). Biological Conservation: Study of the Relationship between Orang Utan and Rattans in Borneo. Thesis. Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, Canada.

Mogea, J. (1995). Flora Palem Sulawesi. Seminar Biology XIV dan Kongres Nasional Biologi XI. Indonesia.

Myers. N. (1988). Tropical Forest and Their Species. In Biodiversity. Wilson. E. O. (Ed.) Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Raven, P.H. and McNeely, J.A. (1998). Biological Extinction : Its Scope and Meaning for Us in Protection of Global Biodiversity. In Protection of Global Biodiversity. Converging Strategies. Guruswamy, L. D. and McNeely, J. A. (Eds.). London: Duke University Press.

Whitmore, T. C. (1973). Palm of Malaya. London: Oxford University Press.

Whitten, A. J. (1984). The Ecology of Sumatra. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

Whitten, A. J. (1987). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

World Resources Institute. (1989). World Resources 1988-89. Washington, DC. USA.